ॐ Hindu Of Universe ॐ
“God’s light is within you, It never leaves you.”
Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world.
Hinduism is world’s third largest religion after Christianity and Islam.
Hinduism is the dominant religion in India, where Hindus form about 84 per cent of the total population.
Hinduism is also known as “Sanatan Dharma” or the everlasting religion.
Hindu religion is based on the concept that human and animal spirits come back to earth to live many times in different forms.
The Hindus believe that a soul moves up and down hierarchy on the basis of behavior.
According to Hinduism a person is born into the higher class because he/she must have done good deeds in past life whereas a person is born into poverty and shame because of misdeeds in past life.
Central to Hinduism are the concepts of reincarnation, the caste system, merging with Brahman, finding morality, and reaching Nirvana (the peaceful escape from the cycle of reincarnation).
According to Hinduism the paths to salvation include rituals, devotion and the way of knowledge (realization of reality and self-reflection).
If the practitioner follows the paths of these ways, salvation can be achieved.
The main Hindu scriptures are Sruti (what is heard), Smriti (what is remembered) the Vedas, the Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Puranas and epics.
The Sruti include deeply religious things communicated to a seer and recorded.
The Vedas, the religious writings, include mantras (hymns of praise), brahmanas (sacrificial rituals) and Upanishads (108 sacred teachings).
The Smriti include the law (books of laws), puranas (myths, stories, legends) and epics (sets of holy myths including Ramayana and Mahabharata).
Hindu Religious Texts
Hindu Religious Texts Hinduism is considered to be the oldest living religion in the world.
Hindus from allover the world depend on a large number of religious texts written and developed over many centuries in order to get spiritual insights and guidance to practice a perfect religious life.
Vedas are the oldest and most authoritative among all these ancient texts.
Eighteen Puranas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita are also respected scriptures of Hindu religion.
Followings are few of the most important Hindu religious texts :
Bhagvad Gita
Chalisas
Durga Saptashati
Mahabharata
Puranas
Ramayana
Sundar Kand
Upanishads
Vedas
About Hinduism
About HinduismHinduism is the oldest living religious tradition in the world and is also known as Sanatana Dharma and Vedic Dharma.
It is not a single religion but a set of different schools of thought and traditions.
Hinduism is a mixture of many religious rituals, sects and philosophies and all of them are different from each other in different parts of India.
Majority of Hindus follow the Vedanta philosophy of one God- “Brahman” who is worshipped in many forms like Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, etc.
About 1 billion people worldwide are followers of Hinduism making it the third largest religion of the world.
The followers of Hinduism regard the four vedas as the main scripture.
Each veda is divided into parts called : Brahmanas, Samhitas, Aranyakas and Upanishads which are also widely followed.
The other main scriptures are the 18 puranas, 18 up-puranas, the bhagvad gita and ramayana.
The basic beliefs of Hinduism are :
Dharma (individual ethics, duties and obligations)
Samsara (“rebirth”)
Karma (“actions”)
Moksha (“salvation”)
Different schools of Hinduism follow different paths or means for salvation.
The four main paths that most of the schools follow are : the path of devotion- “Bhakti“, the path of action-“Karma“, the path of meditation- “Raja” and the path of enlightenment- “Jnana“.
The basis of hindu philosophy is that all souls that are born from Brahman (“Cosmic Spirit“) finally merge with it.
What is Hinduism?
Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest religions and is the oldest religion that is still practiced today.
The religious tradition of Hinduism is primarily focused on connecting to the supreme god or ultimate reality, known as Brahman, and bettering oneself to escape the cycle of reincarnation.
The tradition functions not only as a religion, but the definition of Hinduism also includes combining the beliefs, cultural practices, and philosophy of ancient and modern India.
Hinduism is famous for having thousands of deities, both gods and goddesses, but most Hindus believe that all of the deities are manifestations of Brahman.
In the 21st century, Hinduism is considered the third most-practiced religion in the world, following Christianity and Islam.
It is especially common in India, the area where it originated, as 94% of the world’s Hindu population resides there.
It is also widely practiced in Nepal and Bangladesh.
What is the origin of Hinduism?
Unlike most world religions, there is no singular founder of Hinduism, so no one knows who started Hinduism.
Since the tradition is so ancient, there are few facts known about its origins and early history.
When did Hinduism begin? Some scholars believe that Hinduism originated where northern India is today in the Indus Valley region, as early as 10,000 BCE.
The tradition may have started as an indigenous tradition native to the area.
The term Hindu, meaning Indian, was given to the tradition by the Persians who inhabited the area much later.
Around 1,500 BCE, however, Hinduism became a functioning religion with codified scriptures called the Vedas, which contain the basic principles of Hinduism.
This period of history in early Hinduism, when the earliest texts and doctrines were established, is called the Vedic period.
Scriptures
Hinduism is not always practiced as a scriptural tradition, with people relying on texts for guidance.
However, there are a variety of texts that are authoritative for the tradition.
The tradition breaks religious texts into two categories: the shruti, meaning what is heard, and the smriti, meaning what is remembered.
The latter category contains popular religious literature, including the epics the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
The former category contains many sacred scriptures that monks and other religious leaders have preserved and studied over time, all of which are contained in the Vedas.
Shruti
The authoritative texts of Hinduism are called shastras, or scriptures, and contain a collection of the spiritual laws passed along by Hindu saints and sages.
In the shastras, the Vedas, which simply means knowledge, are the oldest texts of Hinduism.
According to the tradition, the Vedas does not contain ideas just thought of by humans but instead, contains knowledge that always existed in the world but was finally written down.
Some believe that they began as oral traditions that the gods gave to scholars to write down.
The texts are primarily focused on rituals and how to worship different deities.
The Vedas also contain other collections of Hindu scripture.
The Brahmanas are a subset of the Vedas that provide Hindu commentary on the earlier Vedas.
Perhaps the best-known section of the Vedas is the Upanishads.
The Upanishads are the latest written texts in the Vedas and contain the philosophical discourse of the tradition.
The name Upanishads literally means to sit down near, which is appropriate as the texts are formatted as Hindu teachers or gurus passing down knowledge to their students.
Smriti
The smriti contains the texts that most non-monastic Hindus read and study.
Instead of lofty philosophical thought, details on ancient Hindu rituals, and instructions of how to worship the deities, the smriti contains two epics and other mythologies that tell two of the most important stories in Hinduism.
The Puranas, which means old or ancient, contain mythologies and creation stories of the deities.
The Ramayana is one of the Hindu epics that tell the story of Prince Rama, an incarnation of the god Vishnu, killing the demon king Ravana to rescue his wife, Sita, whom Ravana had kidnapped.
The story is significant because Rama follows his dharma, or duty, throughout the story, which becomes an example for all Hindus.
The Mahabharata is the second Hindu epic and is also the longest recorded poem in the world.
This epic describes a war that takes place between families in India (Mahabharata literally means great India) who are part of a larger royal family: the Pandavas and the Kauravas.
The two families are at war for who will take the throne of India, but the Pandavan warrior-prince Arjuna is conflicted because Hinduism teaches non-violence.
One of the most famous and influential parts of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad Gita, meaning song of the Lord, which contains Arjuna seeking help over what his role is in the war from Krishna, the incarnation of Vishnu.
Despite the emphasis on non-violence, Krishna explains that Arjuna’s dharma, or duty, as a warrior and prince is the most important path for him to follow.
Scene from the Bhagavad Gita where Krishna speaks to Arjuna.
Major Beliefs of Hinduism
One of the unique aspects of Hinduism versus other world religions is that there is no set of unified beliefs, practices, or guidelines one must adhere to to be a Hindu.
Most Hindus believe, however, that certain laws govern the universe and humanity.
These include:
- dharma
- samsara
- moksha
- karma
Basic Tenets
Dharma literally means duty, and it is based on one’s position in life.
This is where the caste system is significant.
Someone in the priestly or royal class will have a different dharma than someone in the warrior caste, the merchant caste, or the commoner caste.
Hinduism teaches that one’s position in the caste system is determined by their actions in a previous life since everyone lives, dies, and is reborn in the cycle of reincarnation called samsara.
Therefore, if someone did not follow their dharma in a previous life, they would be born lower down in the caste system than they were before; if they did follow their dharma, they might be born higher up.
Depending on the severity of how poorly they followed their dharma, they might be reborn as an untouchable or even as an animal.
Although samsara seems endless, Hinduism teaches that there is an escape or liberation from the endless cycle of birth and rebirth, which is called moksha.
Following one’s dharma is what can help them achieve moksha, and karma is a part of this.
Karma is not quite the same as the 21st-century popular conception of “what goes around comes around” or that what one does to someone else will happen to them as well. Rather, karma focuses on right action and is inherently tied to the other concepts of Hinduism.
The better one’s karma is, the better their chance to move up in the cycle of reincarnation and closer to achieving moksha.
Karma is very much based on one’s station in life, so the right action for one person might be different from another person based on their dharma.
For most people, part of their dharma is ahimsa, or non-violence, since all people and animals are souls attempting to achieve moksha.
Deities
Hinduism is perhaps most well-known for its many deities.
Most Hindus believe, however, that there is one supreme god or spiritual entity called Brahman who has various incarnations.
The three most important incarnations of Brahman are the gods in the trimurti, or three gods:
- Brahma
- Vishnu
- Shiva
Brahma is considered the creator god, but he appeared to be worshiped more in early Hinduism than in modern Hinduism.
He is often depicted with three faces because of the three parts of the trimurti.
Vishnu, the restorer or preserver god, is perhaps the most worshiped of all the gods.
Vishnu’s incarnations include Krishna, the blue-skinned god who appears in the Mahabharata, and Rama.
The final god of the trimurti is Shiva, the destroyer god.
Shiva’s destruction is not violent or bad, however.
Instead, his destruction is to make way for new creation or to destroy that which is imperfect.
In addition to the trimurti, there is a supreme goddess known as Shakti or Devi who is worshiped in various incarnations and is as powerful and important as Vishnu and Shiva.
In addition to the trimurti, there are many other deities who are incarnations of Brahman.
Deity Role Relationship to Other Deities Depiction
Indra Supreme god of early Hinduism Father of Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata Depicted with a thunderbolt
Parvati Goddess of love and fertility Incarnation of Shakti, wife of Shiva, mother of Ganesha Woman riding tigers or lions
Ganesha God of good fortune Son of Shiva and Parvati Elephant-headed god
Hanuman God of strength None Monkey-faced god
Lakshmi Goddess of prosperity Incarnation of Shakti, wife of Vishnu Woman standing on a lotus
Kali Goddess of time and death Incarnation of Shakti, wife of Shiva Blue or black four-armed woman, usually holding a severed head
Depiction of the supreme goddess Kali, then from left to right below her, Indra, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
Institutions
Like all religions, Hinduism has sacred spaces that are used for worship and community.
The primary places of worship for Hindus are temples, called mandir, which are usually dedicated to a specific deity, though many other deities can be worshiped there as well.
Hindu temples are holy places that can be visited at any time as there is not a set worship schedule.
Since they are sacred, people remove their shoes when entering the temple.
While temples are for Hindu laypeople, there is also ashram, which are Hindu monasteries.
These are used primarily for Hindu spiritual leaders to retreat for meditation, instruction, and religious reflection.
Major Practices
One of the most common practices of Hinduism is bhakti, or devotion to the deities.
In addition to temples, people will often have shrines in their homes to certain deities and will worship them there.
When these worship services are communal, they are referred to as puja and will involve prayer, bhakti, a sacrifice of foods to the deities, music, and meditation.
These meditations, whether part of a puja service or not, often include yoga and sadhana.
Yoga is practiced around the world in the 21st-century as meditation and exercise. However, in Hinduism, yoga, which means to unite, is a spiritual practice that is used to bring about full mindfulness and connect to Brahman.
Yoga does this by including concepts of breath control, meditation, and exercise to bring about a point of zero thought.
Sadhana is less focused on the body than it is on the mind.
Sadhana literally means realization, and practicing it involves visualizing the deities and using tantras, which are ritual texts or sayings that are repeated to focus oneself during meditation.
Lesson Summary
Hinduism is a world religious tradition that combines the beliefs, cultural practices, and philosophy of ancient and modern India. It began in the Indus Valley possibly as early as 10,000 BCE, but the facts about the Hindu religion’s founder and time of founding are unknown.
By 1,500 BCE, the earliest religious texts, called the Vedas, were written to preserve the rituals and practices of the tradition.
The Hindu shastras, or collection of the spiritual laws passed along by Hindu saints and sages, include the section of the Vedas called the Upanishads, which contain the philosophical discussion of Hinduism.
In addition, other less authoritative religious texts like the Mahabharata provide important discussions of Hindu ideas for religious practitioners.
Some of the most important beliefs and practices of Hinduism include:
- dharma, or duty
- samsara, or reincarnation
- moksha, or the liberation from samsara
- karma, or right action
- and belief in one god or supreme divine entity called Brahman with multiple manifestations
The deities who are manifestations of Brahman include Brahma (the creator god), Vishnu (the preserver god), Shiva (the destroyer god), and Shakti (the supreme goddess).
Many Hindus try to connect to Brahman and practice mindfulness through yoga as well as by reciting tantras, or ritual texts.
What are the basic beliefs of Hinduism?
One of the basic beliefs of Hinduism includes a belief in a supreme god or deity known as Brahman, who has multiple incarnations.
In addition, most Hindus believe that they are trapped in samsara, a cycle of birth and rebirth/reincarnation, and can find liberation (moksha) from the cycle by achieving their dharma (duty).
What defines Hinduism?
Hinduism can be defined as a collection of the religion, culture, and philosophy of ancient India.
It is characterized by a belief in reincarnation as well as in a supreme god or entity called Brahman who has multiple manifestations as a variety of deities.
Hinduism
Hinduism, considered the world’s oldest religion, is still commonly practiced.
Because of its large following, it’s also regarded as the world’s third largest religion.
Hinduism combines the beliefs, philosophy, and cultural practices of India.
Central to the faith is a belief in reincarnation and one supreme god called Brahman who has multiple manifestations as either a god or goddess.
Gods and goddesses can be spirits, trees, animals, and even planets.
Hindu practitioners are guided by Vedic scriptures and believe in righteousness, the laws of cause and effect, and the cycle of birth and death.
Outside of Hindu culture, many people may be familiar with yoga, which involves controlled breathing, meditation, and physical postures; karma, or how a person’s actions determine his or her future existence; and tantras, or ritual texts.
Origin & Scriptures
The origins of Hinduism date as far back as 4000 to 10,000 B.C.E. in India. Unlike Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, it cannot be traced to a single individual or group of individuals, but rather cultural and religious developments.
Modern Hinduism shares some practices in common with the Ancient Neolithic people of India, such as ancestral worship, burials, and cremation.
The Vedic period, during which the ancient Vedas, or religious texts, were composed, occurred between 1500 and 500 B.C.E.
Shastras are Hindu scriptures, a collection of the spiritual laws passed along by Hindu saints and sages as the religion evolved.
The Rigveda, which originated between 1700 and 1100 B.C.E., contains the earliest known Hindu hymns.
However, many Hindu scriptures have yet to be formally translated.
Basic Tenets
Anyone who accepts its practices can become a Hindu. As there’s no unified system of beliefs in Hinduism, it lacks an integrated structure of ideas and principles. The most well-known Hindu deities include the Brahma, who is the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer.
While Hinduism has diverse beliefs and traditions, there are laws that govern a person’s actions and behaviors.
These are dharma, or ethics and duties; samsara, rebirth; Karma, right action; and moksha, or liberation from the cycle of Samsara.
Hindus also believe strongly in austerity, celibacy, cleanliness, contentment, honesty, non-violence, perseverance, prayer, penance, strictness, and truth.
Lesson Summary
Hinduism is not only the world’s oldest, but also its third largest religion and combines the beliefs, cultural practices, and philosophy of India.
It is based upon a belief in reincarnation and the supreme god Brahman who can take the form of a god or goddess.
Hindu texts include the Shastras, a collection of the spiritual laws passed along by Hindu sages and saints.
They also include the Rigveda, which contains the earliest known Hindu hymns.
Prominent among the Hindu deities are the Brahma, or the Creator; Vishnu, the Preserver; and Shiva, the Destroyer.
Hindu practitioners adhere to the principles of dharma, ethics and duties; samsara, rebirth; karma, right action; and moksha, or liberation from the cycle of samsara.
Key Terms
Hinduism
Hinduism: a religion developed from the beliefs, philosophy and cultural practices of India
Vedas: religious texts
Dharma: ethics and duties
Samsara: rebirth; reincarnation
Karma: right action; how a person’s actions determine his or her future existence
Moksha: the liberation from the cycle of Samsara
What is Hinduism?
Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest religions and is the oldest religion that is still practiced today.
The religious tradition of Hinduism is primarily focused on connecting to the supreme god or ultimate reality, known as Brahman, and bettering oneself to escape the cycle of reincarnation.
The tradition functions not only as a religion, but the definition of Hinduism also includes combining the beliefs, cultural practices, and philosophy of ancient and modern India.
Hinduism is famous for having thousands of deities, both gods and goddesses, but most Hindus believe that all of the deities are manifestations of Brahman.
In the 21st century, Hinduism is considered the third most-practiced religion in the world, following Christianity and Islam.
It is especially common in India, the area where it originated, as 94% of the world’s Hindu population resides there.
It is also widely practiced in Nepal and Bangladesh.
What is the origin of Hinduism?
Unlike most world religions, there is no singular founder of Hinduism, so no one knows who started Hinduism.
Since the tradition is so ancient, there are few facts known about its origins and early history.
When did Hinduism begin?
Some scholars believe that Hinduism originated where northern India is today in the Indus Valley region, as early as 10,000 BCE.
The tradition may have started as an indigenous tradition native to the area.
The term Hindu, meaning Indian, was given to the tradition by the Persians who inhabited the area much later.
Around 1,500 BCE, however, Hinduism became a functioning religion with codified scriptures called the Vedas, which contain the basic principles of Hinduism.
This period of history in early Hinduism, when the earliest texts and doctrines were established, is called the Vedic period.
Scriptures
Hinduism is not always practiced as a scriptural tradition, with people relying on texts for guidance.
However, there are a variety of texts that are authoritative for the tradition.
The tradition breaks religious texts into two categories: the shruti, meaning what is heard, and the smriti, meaning what is remembered.
The latter category contains popular religious literature, including the epics the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
The former category contains many sacred scriptures that monks and other religious leaders have preserved and studied over time, all of which are contained in the Vedas.
Shruti
The authoritative texts of Hinduism are called shastras, or scriptures, and contain a collection of the spiritual laws passed along by Hindu saints and sages.
In the shastras, the Vedas, which simply means knowledge, are the oldest texts of Hinduism.
According to the tradition, the Vedas does not contain ideas just thought of by humans but instead, contains knowledge that always existed in the world but was finally written down.
Some believe that they began as oral traditions that the gods gave to scholars to write down.
The texts are primarily focused on rituals and how to worship different deities.
Major Beliefs of Hinduism
One of the unique aspects of Hinduism versus other world religions is that there is no set of unified beliefs, practices, or guidelines one must adhere to to be a Hindu.
Most Hindus believe, however, that certain laws govern the universe and humanity.
These include:
- dharma
- samsara
- moksha
- karma
Basic Tenets
Dharma literally means duty, and it is based on one’s position in life.
This is where the caste system is significant.
Someone in the priestly or royal class will have a different dharma than someone in the warrior caste, the merchant caste, or the commoner caste.
Hinduism teaches that one’s position in the caste system is determined by their actions in a previous life since everyone lives, dies, and is reborn in the cycle of reincarnation called samsara.
Therefore, if someone did not follow their dharma in a previous life, they would be born lower down in the caste system than they were before; if they did follow their dharma, they might be born higher up.
Depending on the severity of how poorly they followed their dharma, they might be reborn as an untouchable or even as an animal.
Although samsara seems endless, Hinduism teaches that there is an escape or liberation from the endless cycle of birth and rebirth, which is called moksha.
Following one’s dharma is what can help them achieve moksha, and karma is a part of this.
Karma is not quite the same as the 21st-century popular conception of “what goes around comes around” or that what one does to someone else will happen to them as well.
Rather, karma focuses on right action and is inherently tied to the other concepts of Hinduism.
The better one’s karma is, the better their chance to move up in the cycle of reincarnation and closer to achieving moksha.
Karma is very much based on one’s station in life, so the right action for one person might be different from another person based on their dharma.
For most people, part of their dharma is ahimsa, or non-violence, since all people and animals are souls attempting to achieve moksha.
Institutions
Like all religions, Hinduism has sacred spaces that are used for worship and community.
The primary places of worship for Hindus are temples, called mandir, which are usually dedicated to a specific deity, though many other deities can be worshiped there as well.
Hindu temples are holy places that can be visited at any time as there is not a set worship schedule.
Since they are sacred, people remove their shoes when entering the temple.
While temples are for Hindu laypeople, there is also ashram, which are Hindu monasteries.
These are used primarily for Hindu spiritual leaders to retreat for meditation, instruction, and religious reflection.
Major Practices
One of the most common practices of Hinduism is bhakti, or devotion to the deities.
In addition to temples, people will often have shrines in their homes to certain deities and will worship them there.
When these worship services are communal, they are referred to as puja and will involve prayer, bhakti, a sacrifice of foods to the deities, music, and meditation.
These meditations, whether part of a puja service or not, often include yoga and sadhana.
Lesson Summary
Hinduism is a world religious tradition that combines the beliefs, cultural practices, and philosophy of ancient and modern India.
It began in the Indus Valley possibly as early as 10,000 BCE, but the facts about the Hindu religion’s founder and time of founding are unknown.
By 1,500 BCE, the earliest religious texts, called the Vedas, were written to preserve the rituals and practices of the tradition.
The Hindu shastras, or collection of the spiritual laws passed along by Hindu saints and sages, include the section of the Vedas called the Upanishads, which contain the philosophical discussion of Hinduism.
In addition, other less authoritative religious texts like the Mahabharata provide important discussions of Hindu ideas for religious practitioners.
Some of the most important beliefs and practices of Hinduism include:
- dharma, or duty
- samsara, or reincarnation
- moksha, or the liberation from samsara
- karma, or right action
- and belief in one god or supreme divine entity called Brahman with multiple manifestations
The deities who are manifestations of Brahman include Brahma (the creator god), Vishnu (the preserver god), Shiva (the destroyer god), and Shakti (the supreme goddess).
Many Hindus try to connect to Brahman and practice mindfulness through yoga as well as by reciting tantras, or ritual texts.
What is Hinduism?
The religion known as Hinduism is actually a collection of several associated religious traditions that originated in ancient India.
The third-largest religion in the world, Hinduism today has more than nine hundred million adherents.
Like Buddhism, Hinduism is a monistic religion, which means that it sees all reality as ultimately one.
Hindus seek oneness with the Ultimate Reality or Spirit (Brahman).
Unlike Buddhism, modern Hinduism tends toward henotheism.
Henotheism is the worship of one supreme god, together with manifestations (i.e., avatars) of that god in a plurality of gods and goddesses.
In Hinduism, religion and society are inseparably connected in a caste system—a fixed social hierarchy.
There are four main branches of Hinduism: Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism.
However, Hinduism is an incredibly large and diverse religion, and there is much variety of belief and practice within each of its main branches.
When did it begin?
The word Hindu refers to the land and inhabitants surrounding the Indus River. References to this region in Hindu scriptures have led scholars to conclude that northern India was the birthplace of Hinduism.
The absence of a single founding figure distinguishes Hinduism from almost every other world religion.
While Hinduism has a set of sacred writings, they are not viewed as divine revelation in the same way that Christians view the Bible as divine revelation or in the way Muslims affirm that the Qur’an is divine revelation.
Hinduism originated between 2000 and 1500 BC, making it one of the world’s oldest religions.
Hindu beliefs and practices originally spread and were passed down via oral tradition.
The earliest body of Hindu sacred writings is the Vedas—from a Sanskrit word meaning “knowledge” or “wisdom”—which take the form of ancient hymns.
The Vedas comprise four books—the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda.
The Rig-Veda is the most ancient of the Vedas.
The concluding portions of the Vedas, known as the Upanishads, cover philosophical topics and are the foundational texts for most Hindu spiritual study.
The most well-known Hindu text is the Bhagavad Gita, which is part of the ancient Hindu epic Mahabharata.
The Bhagavad Gita contains the essence of Hindu devotional teaching.
Who are the key figures?
The eighth-century philosopher Adi Shankara unified Hinduism through a careful study of the Vedas and Upanishads.
He is author of the Hindu saying “Atman is Brahman,” which encapsulates the idea that each individual soul (atman) is finally one with the Ultimate Spirit (Brahman).
The nineteenth-century monk Swami Vivekananda represented Hinduism at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893. He brought about significant reform in the caste system.
Mohandas Gandhi is arguably the most well-known Hindu to modern people.
He is renowned for his teaching on nonviolent civil disobedience to achieve social and political reform in India in the early to mid-twentieth century.
Among popular figures, the Beatles’ George Harrison was a Hindu convert, as are actress Julia Roberts and actor Russell Brand.
What are the main beliefs?
- One and many gods. Hindus believe in one impersonal god or Ultimate Reality—Brahman—while affirming the existence of a plurality of gods and goddesses.
There are three chief manifestations of Brahman—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—from whom all other gods and goddesses are incarnate manifestations.
Brahma, the creator god, is largely ignored in modern Hinduism, while Vishnu, the preserving god, and Shiva, the destroying god, have many worshipers.
Many Hindus also render their primary devotion not to Vishnu or Shiva but to Shakti, a feminine representative of Brahman that manifests herself as many different goddesses.
For all practical purposes, popular Hindu devotion identifies Vishnu, Shiva, or Shakti as Brahman depending on the Hindu tradition followed.
All Hindus believe that Brahman manifests itself in a multitude of avatars—earthly incarnations of gods and goddesses.
It has often been said that there are 330 million gods and goddesses (avatars) in Hinduism.
This number should not be taken literally but “is an exaggeration meant to emphasize the multitude of the gods.”2
- Dharma. The concept of dharma is central to Hinduism.
Although it is difficult to translate, dharma represents Hindu duty, conduct, law, order, religion, virtue, justice, and morality.
It plays a significant role in the Indian caste system.
Each caste has its own rules and regulations by which members must abide.
Dharma is related to karma and the cycle of rebirth or reincarnation, as faithful observance of particular duties is necessary for moving into a higher caste in the next life.
A person may not move out of the caste, essentially one’s social class, into which he was born during his lifetime.
The third-largest religion in the world, Hinduism today has more than nine hundred million adherents.
- Karma.
The doctrine of karma is the backbone of the religious and social system of Hinduism.
Karma says that whatever someone has—whether physical appearance, financial status, personality, health, or sorrow—is a result of his past life.
One goes through the cycle of reincarnation based on his dharma in a previous life.
If someone gives himself to vice and moral degeneration, he will not be destroyed or cease to exist.
Rather, he will continue in the cycle of reincarnation—as long as necessary—until his soul reaches nirvana and he becomes one with the Ultimate Reality.
If someone lives a life of bad dharma, he will be reborn in a lower caste or as a lower life form in the next cycle.
Why do people believe this form of false teaching?
The spread of Hinduism is due in large part to its antiquity and to its comprehensiveness.
Its ideology encompasses the totality of an individual’s familial, social, and religious life, making departure difficult and costly.
The Brahmins (priests and teachers of the highest caste) exercise power over the lives of those in lower castes, confining them in the system.
In the Western world, elements of Hinduism have spread through the popularity of yoga in gyms and exercise programs.
Western popular culture has also long been fascinated by Eastern religions such as Hinduism.
For instance, the Beatles popularized Hindu ideas through their travels to India and their advocacy of Hindu-influenced Transcendental Meditation during the 1960s.
How does it hold up against biblical Christianity?
- Only one God. Contrary to Hinduism, the Bible reveals that there is only one true and living God. This true God is a personal being.
The one God subsists in three persons—the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—who are each fully divine and yet distinct from one another according to each one’s unique personal property.
The Son is not an avatar of the Father, and the Father did not become the incarnate Son.
Rather, the person of the Son of God united a sinless human nature to His eternal divine nature, thereby becoming the God-man.
The Father, Son, and Spirit eternally exist as the one true God.
Law and grace.
The Bible contains prescriptive duties, laws, rituals, and principles of virtue, justice, and morality.
In His law, God reveals His will for the conduct of His people.
What does Hinduism mean?
Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest religions.
It originated in India and is comprised of religious, cultural and philosophical concepts.
The Hindu concept of God is manifold.
Hindus believe that there is one primary, omniscient and omnipotent deity called Brahma, but there are hundreds of thousands of deities that represent certain facets of the all-knowing, absolute and primary Brahman.
Hinduism is expressed and practiced in many different ways.
The basic concepts include belief in reincarnation (samsara); right action (karma), duties, ethics or right ways of living (dharma); and liberation from the reincarnation cycle by living righteously (moksha).
Hinduism is responsible for the development of yoga and Ayurveda.
Many Hindu practitioners also practice yoga.
Explains Hinduism
Full of rituals and various observations, Hinduism is thought to be the oldest religion in the world that is still practiced today.
There is no specific founder or governing system; however, the governing texts or scriptures include the Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita.
Hinduism has many diverse rituals, including various festivals, puja (“worship“) practices and pilgrimages.
Hindus hold strong beliefs about non-violence, integrity, celibacy outside of marriage, cleanliness, purity, prayer, meditation and perseverance.
In Hinduism, yoga is a form of puja, a means of meditating to connect with the Divine, and a way to develop the multi-faceted self (mind, body and spirit).
What is Hinduism?
Hinduism is the general term used to denote the religious traditions indigenous to the Indian sub-continent that formed in the Indus Valley Civilization.
This civilization existed in contemporary day Pakistan and northwest India across the flood plain of the Indus River from 2500 to 1700 BCE.
Defining Hinduism is controversial since, as some scholars contest, the term “Hinduism” was invented by British scholars and colonial administrators in the nineteenth century and did not exist before this date.
In other words, adherents of the Hindu religion living two to three thousand years ago would not have called their religion “Hinduism” as scholars now do today.
However, debates concerning the title’s applicability aside, we will use the term to refer to this religious tradition.
Accordingly, a neat definition is provided by scholar of religion Dale Tuggy who defines Hinduism as “the religious traditions indigenous to the Indian subcontinent other than Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism”
According to Pew Research Center statistics, there are roughly a billion Hindus in the world today (constituting 15% of the global population), although less than 1% of Hindus live outside Asia and the Pacific The overwhelming majority of Hindus (94%) live in India, and the largest populations of Hindus outside India are in Nepal (2% of all Hindus) and Bangladesh (1%). Statistics suggest that followers of the Hindu religion will grow by 352 million between 2015 and 2050, although this will result in a tiny decrease in Hinduism’s number in respect to the total global population (down to 14.9%)
The Supreme God, the Triad, and the gods and goddesses
Hinduism holds to both a pantheistic (belief that God and the universe are one) and polytheistic (Hindus believe in many gods and goddesses who a reflection of the one supreme God) notion of deity.
God, called Brahman, is a supreme being who is imminent within the natural world (i.e. in the sun, moon, wind, animals, etc.)
yet a mystery to the limited human mind, although Hindus wish to rise to a higher state of consciousness to get to know God itself.
As Juan Miguel De Mora stated in his analysis of the principle Hindu texts,
“…all of Hinduism speaks of a single Brahman (neuter), of a single Supreme Truth, of one Ultimate Reality and of a single Absolute, that is, of one God alone, and that the different names given to the various manifestations of Brahman are but different denominations for the one…”
A number of attributes have been ascribed to God including eternal truth, infinite, conscious, unchanging, genderless, transcendent, and is sometimes perceived as the binding unity behind all diversity within the universe.
God is also called by different names, for example, according to the Saivites God is Shiva, to Shaktas God is Shakti, for the Vaishnavites it goes by the name Vishnu, and to adherents of Smartism, all gods are reflections of the one God.
Many Hindus believe that the supreme God has revealed itself in the three personal forms of the Hindu Triad (Trimurti): Brahma the Creator (not to be confused with Brahman), Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer. Beneath this Triad of gods come the inferior deities, which are subject to the cycle of rebirth (unlike the Triad).
God’s immanence in different things does not mean everything is construed as equal given that different things can have different amounts of divine essence within them.
According to this view, the better the object or personality, the more of the divine essence is thought to be present.
Both the Triad gods and their divine families (pariwar) are worshipped, and there are thousands of temples built across India in honour to them.
A Hindu temple is built to accommodate and shelter a god, and this god can depend on the deity selected by a village.
Items such as flowers and fruit are offered to the god and oil is poured on an object representing it.
The most popular gods and goddesses of the Hindu religion include Krishna (god of love and compassion), Rama (god of truth and virtue), Shiva (the destroyer, and part of the Triad), Ganesha (god of success, knowledge, and wealth), Vishnu (the preserver or sustainer of life, and part of the Triad), and Lakshmi (goddess of wealth and prosperity).
Hindus also believe in the existence of evil spirits that can live in trees, fences, and in the ruins of houses.
These are unseen entities whose favour must be cultivated by sacrifices and offerings.
These spirits can be of deceased relatives who can return as angry demons to afflict or slay those who were dearest to them when on Earth.
Sacred Texts
Hinduism is theologically and devotionally grounded in texts, notably the Vedas and the Bhagavad Gita .
The Vedas consist of a number of ancient texts which employ a diverse range of literary genres including prayers, poems, and myths.
They are also some of the oldest scriptures of Hinduism with proposed dates ranging between and including BCE 1900 to BCE 1100.
These texts are of huge significance for Hindus who view them as more than merely human authored.
Their information is revered as possessing uncreated, eternal truths, and therefore believed to be revelation on behalf of a deity.
There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, Atharvaveda, Samaveda, and Yajurveda, as well as four classifications referred to as the Aranyakas, the Brahmanas, the Samhitas, and the Upanishads.
The Samhitas include mantras and benedictions, the Aranyakas and Brahmanas consist of texts and commentaries on matters relating to ceremonies, philosophical conjecture, rituals, and sacrifices, and the Upanishads mostly elucidate on topics of meditational, philosophical, and spiritual significance.
Of the four types of Vedas, the Atharvaveda consists of 20 books with some 730 hymns and was compiled somewhere between 1200 BCE and 1000 BCE.
It is a collection of beliefs pertaining to spells, religious medicine, prayer, and rituals.
The Rigveda is a very ancient collection of songs and liturgy penned between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE.
Its 1028 hymns, divided into 10 books referred to as mandalas, are full of ancient metaphors and allusions.
The Samaveda, known as the Veda of melodies and chants, is a liturgical collection of a creative combination of music, meaning, and spirituality used by the ancient singer priests.
The Yajurveda contains a number of commentaries stating how rituals and sacrifices should be conducted and is dated to 1200 BCE or 1000 BCE.
The Bhagavad Gita is part of the well-known Hindu epic poem, the Mahabharata.
It is thought to have once been an independent source that was included in the sixth book of Mahabharata (chapters 23-40).
The Gita is a hugely influential work in Hindu tradition given its expansive contribution to Indian philosophical and spiritual traditions.
It was likely authored at some point in time between 400 BCE and 200 CE, and it is unknown who penned it although tradition attributes its authorship to a man named Vyasa.
However, Vyasa is more of a legendary development as opposed to a historical figure.
The narrative of the Gita focuses on a war in which two sets of cousins, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, are competing for the throne of Hastinapura located in the kingdom of Kuru.
This is known as the Kurukshetra war, a mythologized war whose historicity is a matter of debate.
According to the story, these cousins and their armies gather on the battlefield and the victor will take the throne.
A man named Arjuna, an archer and the leader of Pandavas, examines his opponents on the battlefield and to his dismay observes his friends and family in their ranks.
In a moment of contemplation, Arjuna reasons to the view that the throne and controlling the kingdom are not worth the blood of his loved ones and therefore withdraws from the battle.
What follows is a dialogue he has with Krishna, the avatar of the god Vishnu, who is Arjuna’s charioteer in the battle, and who attempts to persuade Arjuna to engage the enemy.
Arjuna, convinced by the spiritual and philosophical teachings of Krishna, decides to engage in the battle and wins in the end, and the Pandavas gain ownership of the kingdom.
Karma, Reincarnation, and Moksha
Although the Hindu texts and traditions are very diverse several unifying concepts do emerge such as the notion of deity presented above, as well as the likes of dharma, atman, karma, samsara, and moksha.
Although Dharma has been interpreted diversely among Hindus themselves it is often perceived to denote living righteously in accordance with moral law with the ideal being the performing of the right action and duty at all times.
Dharma can depend on many variables including one’s gender, age, work, and caste.
Hindus also believe in the uncreated and indestructible soul they call atman.
The atman moves from one body (of the deceased) to another in a process known as transmigration, which is determined by the spiritual and ethical concept of karma.
In Hinduism, the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara) is governed by karma, and it is predicated on the notion that good actions create good karma and bad actions create bad karma.
For every action there is an effect, and therefore every action becomes a factor in how a person will be reborn in the next life.
The Hindu’s ultimate goal is to attain liberation (moksha) from this samsara (the cycle of death and rebirth).
This belief evolved over time in the Vedas and the Upanishads and is viewed differently by Hindu religious groups and schools in terms of the paths for attaining it and whether or not it can take place in life or only after death.
It is often believed that moksha is attained when the person’s soul unites with God, Brahman, by realizing its true nature.
The Varna
The varna is a social structure in the form of a class system within traditional Hindu societies that is inspired by Hindu scriptures.
There are typically four classes: priestly (brahmin), warrior and rulers (kshatriya), farmers and merchants (vaisya), and the labourers and servants (sudra).
Not all in society fall within these four classes, which has led some to propose a fifth class, namely the classless outcasts or untouchables (chandalas or dalits).
The varna class system is hierarchical and deemed to be natural distinctions that are divinely inspired.
Who are the Hindu Deities?
According to Hinduism, also referred to as Sanatan Dharma (Eternal Order), Brahman is the one supreme reality or the underlying divine entity behind everything.
But there are also a multitude of individual gods and goddesses, each with different roles and dedicated worshippers.
In this way, Hinduism can be viewed as both monotheistic, having only one god, and also polytheistic, having many gods.
Hinduism consists of a compilation of different philosophies, rituals, cultural practices, and traditions.
Because of this, there is a wide diversity in Hindu beliefs and practice, both throughout history and among different communities, with many considering Hinduism more a way of life than a religion.
Who are the Main Hindu gods?
The three main Hindu gods are referred to as the Trimurti and are considered the three forms or faces of Brahman, the ultimate reality.
The names of these three gods are Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva, and each of them has a distinct role and manifests different aspects of Brahman.
A sculpture of Vishnu, Shiva, and Brahma
Each of the gods of the divine triad has a unique role in the universe, different incarnations or avatars, and stories in Hindu mythology.
Vishnu and Shiva also have groups of loyal and devout Hindu followers.
The Hindu sect made up of those who worship Shiva as supreme is called Shaivism, while Vaishnavism refers to the followers of Vishnu.
The following chart provides an overview of some important aspects related to the three divinities.
Name Main Role or Purpose Notable Incarnations or Avatars Worshippers Female Consort
Brahma Creator Rarely worshipped Saraswati (Sarasvati)
Vishnu Preserver Rama, Krishna Worshipped as the supreme god by Vaishnavites Laxmi (Shri)
Shiva Destroyer Nataraja, Bhairava, Ardhanarishvara Worshipped as the supreme god by Shaivists Parvati (Durga or Kali or Sati)
Brahma
Brahma, the god of creation, is typically depicted with four heads and four arms and is red in color.
This symbolizes the importance of four in many aspects of Hindu belief, such as the four Vedas, which are credited to Brahma.
In Brahma’s four arms are the Vedas, a goblet or water pot, a lotus, prayer beads, and a scepter in the form of a spoon.
Brahma is the god who brought all things into being and is depicted as the creator in the creation stories.
Compared to Vishnu and Shiva, Brahma is rarely worshipped in Hinduism today, and there are very few temples dedicated to him.
This lack of worship is attributed either to the fact that his work of creation is complete or that he received a punishment for some kind of wrongdoing.
While there are stories of Brahma coming to earth in the Puranas, these avatars are not recognized or worshipped in the same way as those of Vishnu and Shiva.
Hindu Gods
In addition to the three central deities of the Trimurti, many other gods and goddesses are worshipped in Hinduism, some of them being different incarnations of Vishnu or Shiva.
Specific Hindu deities often have temples dedicated to their worship with statues and images of one or more deities.
Each of the individual Hindu deities is a manifestation or embodiment of some aspect or characteristic of Brahman.
Yet Hindus also recognize and worship various deities as distinct gods and goddesses.
Hindu worship, or puja, varies, but usually consists of rituals done at home or in the temple, and includes reciting chants and making offerings to the gods.
Here are some of the most significant Hindu gods and goddesses:
Lesson Summary
Hinduism can be viewed as either monotheistic because it believes in one divine reality, called Brahman, or as polytheistic because of the multitude of gods and goddesses that are worshipped.
Hinduism today is a compilation of many traditions, cultures and rituals, with its earliest origins traced to the Indus Valley Civilization.
During the Vedic era , the oldest Hindu texts, the four Vedas, were put into writing.
Of the many deities that are worshipped, the Trimurti refers to the three main gods or forms of Brahman:
- Brahma: The god of creation.
- Vishnu: The god of preservation.
- Shiva: The god of destruction.
Who are Hindus?
In one sense a Hindu is anyone who identifies as such.
However, it is somewhat more complicated than that, as they may also need to be accepted as Hindu by others, and in any case the meaning of the word Hindu has changed over time and continues to be fluid.
While now the terms Hindu and Indian are most often used to mean something quite different, they both owe their origins to the Sanskrit Sindhu or River Indus.
When pronounced by the Persians, Sindhu became Hindu which was subsequently appropriated by the Greeks for whom it became Indos.
In both instances, the terms referred to the land beyond the river, the people and their way of life.
Hence in the past Hindu and Indian meant much the same and were used as synonyms.
Later Hindu came to have a distinctly religious meaning as an adherent of Hinduism, displacing the earlier geographic, ethnic and cultural meaning that was broad enough to encompass members of other religions, such as those now called Jains and Buddhists.
The legacy of the older usage persisted into the modern period in Western sources which retained the sense of Hindus as participants in the indigenous civilisation of the subcontinent even if the narrow religious sense was acquiring dominance.
Opinions differ as to when and why this change occurred (see When did Hinduism begin?).
It is clear that what began as a term used by outsiders in due course was adopted by insiders.
It is less clear whether Muslim or Hindu commentators in pre-modern India conceived of Muslims and Hindus as religious communities rather than ethnic or cultural groups. Possibly, as William Oddie suggests, regional factors may go some way towards explaining apparently contradictory evidence on Muslim-Hindu relations and the development of Hindu self-identity as membership of a religious community.
While this self-identity may predate the modern period, undoubtedly it developed further in British India where, for a variety of reasons, Hindus increasingly prioritised their affiliation with ‘Hinduism’ over the multitude of traditions and movements with which they were associated.
Even so, ethnographic studies query the notion that Hindus and Muslims belonged to exclusive communities and qualify the extent to which Hindus recognised the label Hindu as designating their religious identity.
Certainly today those who describe themselves as Hindu in all likelihood will do so to indicate their adherence to Hinduism as a religion, albeit that ambiguity and ambivalence have not been eliminated entirely.
Some contemporary Hindu nationalists are reviving the idea that Hindu and Indian are interchangeable (as did Hindu nationalists in the first half of the twentieth century), so counting adherents of Indian-origin traditions such as Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs as Hindu, while rejecting Muslims and Christians as Indians.
Some religious groups cross the boundaries between communities for example some Punjabi groups (such as the Valmikis) that challenge the division of Hindus from Sikhs.
ISKCON devotees have been divided on how the Society should be positioned, as separate from or part of Hinduism, though many would accept the label Hindu while also emphasising their Vaishnava allegiance.
The position of some minority ‘tribal’ groups in India can also be ambiguous.
In most cases, self-identified Hindus are born and brought up in Hindu families, in India or of Indian descent in diaspora, settled in other countries.
Many would maintain that to be a Hindu you have to be born into a Hindu family but there are exceptions or at least qualifications, with Westerners (and others) joining Hindu and Hindu-related movements in addition to participating more generally in Hindu religious life whether or not the label Hindu is applied to or adopted by individuals.
Nevertheless, an antipathy towards conversion as neither karmically appropriate nor ethically acceptable together with the absence of definitive criteria for establishing what is and what is not Hinduism make it more difficult to establish a Hindu religious identity independent of an ethnic basis.
The 5 Principles and 10 Disciplines of Hinduism
The specific principles and disciplines of Hinduism vary with different sects: but there are commonalities which represent the bedrock of the religion, expressed and reflected in the ancient writings of the Vedas. Below are brief descriptions of these common principles and disciplines.
5 Principles
The principles of Sanatana Dharma were made to create and maintain the proper working of a society and its members and governors.
Regardless of the circumstances, the principles and philosophy of Hinduism remain the same: the ultimate aim of human life is to realize its true form.
- God Exists. According to the Hindu religion, there is only one Absolute Divine, a singular force that joins all facets of existence together known as the Absolute OM (sometimes spelled AUM). This divine is the Lord of All Creation and a universal sound that is heard within every living human being. There are several divine manifestations of the OM, including Brahma, Vishnu, and Maheshwara (Shiva).
- All Human Beings Are Divine. Ethical and moral behavior is considered the most prized pursuit of human life. The soul of an individual (jivatma) is already part of the divine soul (the Paramatma) although it remains in a dormant and deluded condition. It is the sacred mission of all humans to awaken their soul and make it realize its true divine nature.
- Unity of Existence. The seekers aim to be at-oneness with God, not as separate individuals (oneness of self), but rather a closer connection (at-one-ness) with God.
- Religious Harmony. The most basic natural law is to remain in harmony with its fellow creatures and the universal.
- Knowledge of 3 Gs. The three Gs are the Ganges (the sacred river in India where the cleansing of sins occurs), the Gita (the sacred script of the Bhagavad-Gita), and the Gayatri (a revered, sacred mantra found in the Rig Veda, and also a poem/intonement in the same specific meter).
10 Disciplines
The 10 disciplines in Hinduism include five political goals called Yamas or Great Vows, and five personal goals called Niyamas.
The 5 Great Vows (Yamas) are shared by many Indian philosophies.
The Yamas are political goals, in that they are broad-based social and universal virtues in the form of moral restraints or social obligations.
- Satya (Truth) is the principle that equates God with soul. It is the mainstay of the basic moral law of Hinduism: people are rooted in Satya, the greatest truth, unity of all life. One should be truthful; not act fraudulently, be dishonest or a liar in life. Further, a true person does not regret or brood over losses caused by speaking truth.
- Ahimsa (Non-violence) is a positive and dynamic force, that means benevolence or love or goodwill or tolerance (or all of the above) of all living creatures, including the objects of knowledge and various perspectives.
- Brahmacharya (Celibacy, non-adultery) is one of the four great ashrams of Hinduism. The beginning student is to spend the first 25 years of one’s life practicing abstinence from the sensual pleasures of life, and instead concentrate on selfless work and study to prepare for life beyond. Brahmacharya means stringent respect of personal boundaries, and the preservation of vital life force; abstinence from wine, sexual congress, meat-eating, consumption of tobacco, drugs, and narcotics. The student instead applies the mind to studies, avoids things that ignite passions, practice silence,
- Asteya (No desire to steal) refers not just to the theft of objects but to refrain from exploitation. Do not deprive others of what is theirs, whether it is things, rights, or perspectives. An upright person earns his or her own way, by dint of hard work, honesty, and fair means.
- Aparigraha (Non-possessiveness) warns the student to live simply, keep only those material things that are required to sustain the demands of daily life.
The five Niyamas provide the Hindu practitioner with rules to develop the personal discipline essential to follow the spiritual path
- Shaucha or Shuddhata (Cleanliness) refers to the internal and external purification of both body and mind.
- Santosh (Contentment) is the conscious reduction of desires, the limiting of attainments and possessions, narrowing down the area and scope of one’s desire.
- Swadhyaya (Reading of scriptures) refers not just to the reading of the scriptures but the use them to create a neutral, unbiased and pure mind ready to conduct the self-introspection required to create a balance sheet of one’s omissions and commissions, overt and covert deeds, successes and failures.
- Tapas/Tapah (Austerity, perseverance, penance) is the performance of physical and mental discipline throughout a life of asceticism. Ascetic practices include observing silence for long periods of time, begging for food, remaining awake at night, sleeping on the ground, being isolated in the forest, standing for a prolonged time, practicing chastity. The practice generates heat, a natural power built into the structure of reality, the essential link between the structure of reality, and the force behind creation.
- Ishwar pradihan (Regular prayers) requires the student to surrender to the will of God, perform every act in a selfless, dispassionate and natural way, accept the good or bad results, and leave the result of one’s deeds (one’s karma) to God.
Three Hindu gods
Vishnu is one of the most popular gods of the Hindu pantheon.
His portrayal here is standard: a royal figure standing tall, crowned and bejeweled, in keeping with his role as king and preserver of order within the universe.
He carries a gada (mace) and chakra (disc) in his hands.
The other two hands, which would have held a lotus and conch, are broken.
On his forehead he wears a vertical mark or tilak, commonly worn by followers of Vishnu.
In keeping with his iconography as the divine king, he is heavily bejeweled, wears a sacred thread that runs over his left shoulder and a long garland that comes down to his knees.
He stands flanked by two attendants, who may be his consorts Bhu and Shri, on a double lotus.
The stele has a triangular top unlike earlier examples which were usually in the shape of a gently lobed arch.
On either side of his crown are celestial garland bearers and musicians, the Vidyadharas and Kinnaras.
A kirtimukha, or auspicious face of glory, is carved on the top centre of the arch.
The sculpture is typical of workmanship of the Pala dynasty of twelfth-century Bengal. The heart-shaped face with stylized arched eyebrows, long eyes that are slightly upturned at the ends, the broad nose, and the pursed smile are all characteristic.
A temple image of the Divine Couple: Shiva and ParvatiShiva is a powerful Hindu deity. He has a female consort, like most of the gods, one of whose names is Parvati, “the daughter of the mountain.”
Shiva and Parvati may appear as a loving couple sitting together in a form called Umamaheshvara.
In this example two separate bronze images have been designed as a group.
Both Shiva and Parvati wear elaborate jewelry.
Shiva is the more powerful deity and so he is depicted with four arms and is the taller figure.
In his hands he holds his weapon, the trident, a small deer and a fruit.
His fourth hand is raised in reassurance (abhayamudra).
Like other images of Shiva he wears two different earrings.
Parvati holds a lotus in one hand and a round fruit in the other.
Bronze-casting in the eleventh century was highly developed in Tamil Nadu in the far south of India.
However, these two bronzes are unusually large for the Deccan in the same period.
The erect frontal pose of these two figures contrasts with the relaxed, naturalistic posture of many images from Tamil Nadu of the Chola period.
The Hindu creator godIt is often said that there is a trinity of Hindu gods: Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver and Shiva the destroyer.
But while Vishnu and Shiva have followers and temples all over India, Brahma is not worshiped as a major deity.
Brahma is the personified form of an indefinable and unknowable divine principle called by Hindus brahman.
In the myth of Shiva as Lingodbhava, when Brahma searches for the top of the linga of fire, Brahma falsely claimed that he had found flowers on its summit, when in fact the Shiva linga was without end.
For this lie he was punished by having no devotees.
There are very few temples dedicated to Brahma alone in India.
The only one of renown is at Pushkar, in Rajasthan.
Brahma can be recognized by his four heads, only three of which are visible in this sculpture. In two of his four hands he holds a water pot and a rosary.
Brahma originally had five heads but Shiva, in a fit of rage, cut one off.
Shiva as Bhairava is depicted as a wandering ascetic with Brahma’s fifth head stuck to his hand as a reminder of his crime.
Brahma is commonly placed in a niche on the north side of Shaiva temples in Tamil Nadu together with sculptures of Dakshinamurti and Lingodbhava.